BILINGUALISM

BIL

The Bilingualism Glossary

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  1. Additive bilingual: the situation when the 2nd language does not interfere with the 1st and both languages are developed (Edwards, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000; Myers-Scotton, 2006,  Mackey, 2004, 2006; Baker, 2006).
  2. Ascendant bilingual: the situation when only L2 is developing (Baker, 2006; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000).
  3. Asymmetrical bilingualism: the situation when under the pressure of a dominant group towards subordinate ones, language contact may result in language shift (Romaine, 2010).
  4. Attrition: a phenomenon that is common in children that are members of ethnolinguistic minority groups that shift into the language they learn at school (Hamers and Blanc, 2004) “While ‘language shift’ denotes the loss of language functions, forms and skills between generations, ‘attrition’ refers to the loss of language

    functions, forms and skills in individuals over time” (Hamers  and Blanc, 2004:301). Also “…the loss of a first -or later- acquired language, or portion of that language, by individual speakers. It can happen at any point in time during an individual’s life span because the necessary contact with speakers of that language is lacking over a lengthy period” (Wei, 2013:34).

  5. Bilingual First Language Acquisition (BFLA): a term that is based on studies of bilingual children who were exposed to two languages from birth (Meisel, 1994; DeHouwer,1990). Also referred to as “bilingualism as a first language” (Baker, 2006; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000) or two first languages” (Romaine, 1995). It implies spontaneous acquisition of language through exposure without effort or instruction (Genesee & Nicoladis, 2006; Matras, 2009).
  6. Bilingual: “A bilingual is a person who can carry on at least casual conversations on everyday topics in a second language” (Myers-Scotton, 2006:65)
  7. Βilingualism: “the ability to use two or more languages sufficiently to carry on a limited casual conversation” (Myers-Scotton, 2006:44). Also, “the native-like control of two languages” (Bloomfield, 1935: 56) and  the “psychological and social states of individuals or groups of people that result from interactions via language in which two or more linguistic codes (including dialects) are used for communication” (Butler and Hakuta, 2004:115).
  8. Borrowing: “the integration of one language into another” (Grosjean & Li, 2013: 18). “Borrowing is almost entirely one way, from the most prestigious language to the less prestigious one” (Myers-Scotton, 2006:211).
  9. Circumstantial bilingual: the situation when learning L2 is a matter of necessity in order to survive in the new environment /country and L2 replaces L1 (Valdes and Figueroa, 1994).
  10. Code-mixing: “the use of elements (phonological, lexical, morphosyntactic) from two languages in the same utterance or stretch of conversation” Genesee and Nicoladis, 2006:12). Also defined as the combination of elements from each language based on the early research assumption that the speaker is not able to differentiate between the two languages (Garcia, 2009).
  1. Code-switching: “the alternate use of languages, that is, the speaker makes a complete shift to the other language and then reverts back to the base language” (Grosjean & Li, 2013: 18). Clyne (2003) distinguishes code-switching (where the switch and the code carry a symbolic meaning and function) from alternation or variety/language switching (where the switch and code do not carry any communicative meaning).
  2. Compound bilingual:  the situation when the individual has learnt the languages in the same context and has access to one semantic system but two linguistic codes. (Heredia and Brown, 2004, 2006; Altarriba and Morier, 2004, 2006; Matras, 2009; Butler and Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000).
  3. Conversational code-switching “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems” (Gumperz, 1982: 59).
  4. Coordinate bilingual: the situation when the individual has learned the languages in a different context, such as one at school and one at home, and keeps words and concepts in each language separate in his mind (Heredia and Brown, 2004, 2006; Altarriba and Morier, 2004, 2006; Matras, 2009; Butler and Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000).
  5. Core borrowings: the outcome of intensive contact and for words that duplicate words that already exist in the recipient language entering the language lexicon (Myers-Scotton, 2006).
  6. Critical Age Hypothesis: the hypothesis that children acquire any language to which they are exposed until about the age of puberty and that, due to the development of the human brain, older learners may depend on learning abilities that are not as effective for language learning as the innate abilities of young children (Lightbown and Spada, 2006).
  7. Cultural borrowings: words that stand for objects or concepts that are new to the recipient culture (Myers-Scotton, 2006)
  8. Dominant bilingual: the individual who is more proficient in one of the two languages (Romaine 1995; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000; Grosjean, 2004, 2006; Butler and Hakuta, 2004).
  9. Dormant bilingual: the individual who knows a language that they never use in everyday life (Wei, 2000; Butler and  Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Grosjean, 1999).
  10. Early bilingual: the individual who acquired the two languages before the age of 4 or 6 (Baker, 2006; Lightbown and Spada, 2006; Wei, 2000; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Matras, 2009; Genesee et al.,1978; Butler and  Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Myers-Scotton, 2006)
  11. Early Second Language Acquisition: applies to children who were exposed to a second language at pre-school age (Genesee & Nicoladis, 2006; Matras, 2009).
  12. Elective bilingual: the situation when learning L2 is a matter of choice, usually through instruction and without affecting L1 (Garcia, 2009; Baker, 2006).
  13. Elite bilingualism: the situation of a person who becomes bilingual as an indication of social status (Garcia, 2009; Romaine, 1995; Edwards, 2004, 2006).
  14. Folk bilingualism: the situation when learning a second language is not a matter of choice but a necessity due to social conditions under which L1 is not favoured (Garcia, 2009; Romaine, 1995; Edwards, 2004, 2006).
  15. Incipient bilingual: when the individual is still in the early stages of language development (Edwards, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000; Myers-Scotton, 2006,  Mackey, 2004, 2006; Baker, 2006).
  16. Individual bilingualism / “bilinguality”: bilingualism as an individual characteristic in situations when the individual has access to two language codes in order to communicate (Hamers and Blanc, 2004).
  17. Interlanguage: the unique product of the interaction of the two languages for each speaker (Butler and Hakuta, 2004).
  18. Inter-sentential code-switching: when the switch takes place at the sentence/clause boundary (Garcia, 2009; Wardhaugh, 2006; Saville-Troike, 2003).
  19. Intra-sentential code-switching: when the switch takes place within word boundaries or different types of switch take place within sentence/clause boundary (Garcia, 2009; Wardhaugh, 2006; Saville-Troike, 2003).
  20. Language contact: a metaphor implying contact between bilingual or multilingual speakers (Matras, 2009).
  21. Language death: “When the group’s language ceases to be spoken by its members we have a case of ‘language death’, even though the language may continue to be spoken somewhere else. The ethnic identity of the group may survive if its language is not one of its core values” (Hamers  and Blanc, 2004:297)  .
  22. Language shift: a phenomenon that refers to language behavior of a whole community, subgroup or individual and implies a gradual process that denotes a change in one of the following: the main language, the dominant language of a group or an individual, the language of one or more domains, the exclusive language for between one and the three of the language skills (Clyne, 2003). Also, “a situation in which over a period of time a social group gives up the use of its first language and replaces it by another spoken in the society” (Hamers and Blanc, 2004:316).
  23. Late bilingual: the individual who acquired the two languages after the age of 12 years old (Baker, 2006; Lightbown and Spada, 2006; Wei, 2000; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Matras, 2009; Genesee et al.,1978; Butler and  Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Myers-Scotton, 2006).
  24. Metaphorical code-switching: when a change of topic requires a change in the language used (Blom & Gumperz, 1972; Wardhaugh, 2006).
  25. Motivated code-switching: when the switches from one language to the other are deliberate (DeBot, 2002).
  26. Performance code-switching: when the switches from one language to the other are unintentional (DeBot, 2002).
  27. Pidginization in second language acquisition: the result of the learner’s failure to acculturate, in other words to adapt to the new culture, failure being a matter of either ability or choice (Ellis,1997).
  28. Productive bilingual:  the individual who uses both languages although this term does not necessarily imply that the individual is necessarily able to both write and speak the two languages with equal proficiency (Beardsmore, 1982; Baker, 2006).
  29. Psychological distance: a situation which is caused by psychological factors, language shock and lack of motivation, impeding L2 acquisition (Ellis, 1997).
  30. Receptive bilingual: when the individual is able to understand a second language without being able to speak or write it (Edwards, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000; Myers-Scotton, 2006,  Mackey, 2004, 2006; Baker, 2006).
  31. Recessive bilingual: the situation when L1 is developing (Baker, 2006; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000).
  32. Second Language Acquisition or late acquisition: acquisition of language at a later stage than pre-school age or through formal instruction (Genesee & Nicoladis, 2006; Matras, 2009).
  33. Semilingual: the individual who has no competency or has insufficient knowledge of either language and is associated with underachievement and the self-fulfilling prophecy (a term with negative academic/ political/ socioeconomic connotations)  (Baker, 2006; Wei, 2000; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1981; Valdés and Figueroa, 1994; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Grosjean, 2004, 2006).
  34. Semilingualism or limited bilingualism: terms that refer to a problematic aspect of bilingualism: the situation when the individual fails to achieve adequate levels of proficiency in either language and therefore suffers the consequences in his academic and cognitive development (Cummins 1976, 1979, 1981; MacSwan, 2000; Baker, 2006; Wei, 2000; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1981; Valdés and Figueroa, 1994; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Grosjean, 2004, 2006).
  35. Sequential/successive bilingual: the individual who learnt one language before the other (Baker, 2006; Lightbown and Spada, 2006; Wei, 2000; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Matras, 2009; Genesee et al.,1978; Butler and  Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Myers-Scotton, 2006).
  36. Simultaneous bilingual: the individual who learnt the two languages as first languages  (Baker, 2006; Lightbown and Spada, 2006; Wei, 2000; Edwards, 2004, 2006; Matras, 2009; Genesee et al.,1978; Butler and  Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Myers-Scotton, 2006).
  37. Situational code-switching: when the languages used change according to the situations and without topic change (Blom & Gumperz,1972; Wardhaugh, 2006).
  38. Social distance: the situation when the learner does not have real contact with the target language group; acculturation is inhibited and so is L2 learning (Ellis,1997).
  39. Societal bilingualism : bilingualism as a characteristic of a group of people or a community where two languages are used (Hamers and Blanc, 2004).
  40. Subordinate bilingual: the situation when the individual understands words in L2 through translating them in L1 (Heredia and Brown, 2004, 2006; Altarriba and Morier, 2004, 2006; Matras, 2009; Butler and Hakuta, 2004, 2006; Wei, 2000).
  41. Subtractive bilingual: the situation when learning the 2nd language interferes with the first, resulting in replacing the 1st with the 2nd)  (Garcia, 2009; Lightbown and Spada, 2006 ; Wei, 2000).
  42. Tag-switching: a tag of another language, such as ‘you know’ or ‘I mean’ is inserted into an utterance (Romaine, 1995).
  43. Transfer/ interference:  the outcome of the influence of a learner’s first language knowledge in the second language (although the two terms are not used interchangeably for all linguists) (Romaine, 1995).
  44. Transfer: “an instance of transference, where the form, feature or construction has been taken over by the speaker from another language, whatever the motives or explanation is. Transference is thus the process and a transfer the product” (Clyne, 2003: 76).
  45. Trigger-words: “words at the intersection of two language systems, which, consequently, may cause speakers to lose their linguistic bearings and continue the sentence in the other language” (Clyne, 1991: 193).
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