Places you have to visit before you die

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One of Greece’s paradises

Ημερομηνία20 Ιανουαρίου 2023

Συντάκτης Β. Τ.

Zakynthos is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea. It is the third largest of the Ionian Islands. Zakynthos is a separate regional unit of the Ionian Islands region, and its only municipality. It covers an area of 405.55 km² and its coastline is roughly 123 km in length. The name, like all similar names ending in -nthos, is pre-Mycenaean or Pelasgian in origin. In Greek mythology the island was said to be named after Zakynthos, the son of the legendary Arcadian chief Dardanus.

Zakynthos is a tourist destination, with an international airport served by charter flights from northern Europe. The island’s nickname is “the Flower of the Levant”, bestowed upon it by the Venetians who were in possession of Zakynthos from 1484 to 1797.

Sights

Navagio (shipwreck) bay

Famous landmarks include the Navagio beach, a cove on the northwest shore isolated by high cliffs and accessible only by boat. Numerous natural “blue caves” are cut into cliffs around Cape Skinari, and accessible only by small boats. Keri, on the south of the island, is a mountain village with a lighthouse. The whole western shore from Keri to Skinari contains rock formations including arches.

Cliffs and stone arches at Cape Marathia

Northern and eastern shores feature numerous wide sandy beaches, some of which attract tourists in summer months. The largest resort is Laganas. Marathonissi islet (also known as “Turtle Island”) near Limni Keriou has tropical vegetation, turquoise waters, beaches, and sea caves. Bochali hill above the Zakynthos town contains a small Venetian castle.

Ancient history

The ancient Greek poet Homer mentioned Zakynthos in the Iliad and the Odyssey, stating that its first inhabitants were the son of King Dardanos of Arcadia, called Zakynthos, and his men. Before being renamed Zakynthos, the island was said to have been called Hyrie. Zakynthos was then conquered by King Arkesios of Kefalonia, and then by Odysseus from Ithaca. Zakynthos participated in the Trojan War and is listed in the Homeric Catalogue of Ships which, if accurate, describes the geopolitical situation in early Greece at some time between the Late Bronze Age and the eighth century BCE. In the Odyssey, Homer mentions 20 nobles from Zakynthos among a total of 108 of Penelope’s suitors.

The Athenian military commander Tolmides concluded an alliance with Zakynthos during the First Peloponnesian War, sometime between 459 and 446 BC. In 430 BC, the Lacedaemonians led a force of about 1,000 heavy infantry, led by the Spartan admiral Cnemus, in an attack upon Zakynthos. Although the attackers managed to burn much of the surrounding countryside, the city itself refused to surrender and the attack ultimately failed. The Zakynthians are then enumerated among the autonomous allies of Athens in the disastrous Sicilian expedition. After the Peloponnesian War, Zakynthos seems to have passed under the supremacy of Sparta because in 374 BC, Timotheus, an Athenian commander, on his return from Kerkyra, landed some Zakynthian exiles on the island and assisted them in establishing a fortified post. These exiles must have belonged to the anti-Spartan party as the Zakynthian rulers applied for help to the Spartans who sent a fleet of 25 to the island.

The importance of this alliance for Athens was that it provided them with a source of tar. Tar is a more effective protector of ship planking than pitch (which is made from pine trees). The Athenian trireme fleet needed protection from rot, decay and the teredo, so this new source of tar was valuable to them. The tar was dredged up from the bottom of a lake (now known as Lake Keri) using leafy myrtle branches tied to the ends of poles. It was then collected in pots and could be carried to the beach and swabbed directly onto ship hulls. Alternatively, the tar could be shipped to the Athenian naval yard at Piraeus for storage.

Philip V of Macedon seized Zakynthos in the early 3rd century BC, when it was a member of the Aetolian League. In 211 BC, the Roman praetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus took the city of Zakynthos with the exception of the citadel. It was afterwards restored to Philip V of Macedon. The Roman general Marcus Fulvius Nobilior finally conquered Zakynthos in 191 BC for Rome. In the Mithridatic War, it was attacked by Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, but he was repulsed.

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Scandinavia’s, little secret

Ημερομηνία20 Ιανουαρίου 2023

Συντάκτης Β. Τ.

Scandinavia’s, little secret

Images of auroras from around the world, including those with rarer red and blue lights

An aurora, also commonly known as the polar lights, is a natural light display in Earth‘s sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions (around the Arctic and Antarctic). Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky.

Auroras are the result of disturbances in the magnetosphere caused by the solar wind. Major disturbances result from enhancements in the speed of the solar wind from coronal holes and coronal mass ejections. These disturbances alter the trajectories of charged particles in the magnetospheric plasma. These particles, mainly electrons and protons, precipitate into the upper atmosphere (thermosphere/exosphere). The resulting ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents emit light of varying colour and complexity. The form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles.

Most of the planets in the Solar System, some natural satellites, brown dwarfs, and even comets also host auroras.

Etymology

The word “aurora” is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of the dawn, Aurora, who travelled from east to west announcing the coming of the sun. Ancient Greek poets used the corresponding name Eos metaphorically to refer to dawn, often mentioning its play of colors across the otherwise dark sky.

The words “borealis” and “australis” are derived from the names of the ancient gods of the north wind (Boreas) and the south wind (Auster).

Occurrence

Earth’s atmosphere as it appears from space, as bands of different colours at the horizon. From the bottom, afterglow illuminates the troposphere in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the stratosphere in white and blue. Next the mesosphere (pink area) extends to just below the edge of space at one hundred kilometers and the pink line of airglow of the lower thermosphere (dark), which hosts green and red aurorae over several hundred kilometers.

Most auroras occur in a band known as the “auroral zone”, which is typically 3° to 6° wide in latitude and between 10° and 20° from the geomagnetic poles at all local times (or longitudes), most clearly seen at night against a dark sky. A region that currently displays an aurora is called the “auroral oval”, a band displaced by the solar wind towards the night side of Earth. Early evidence for a geomagnetic connection comes from the statistics of auroral observations. Elias Loomis (1860), and later Hermann Fritz (1881) and Sophus Tromholt (1881) in more detail, established that the aurora appeared mainly in the auroral zone.

In northern latitudes, the effect is known as the aurora borealis or the northern lights. The former term was coined by Galileo in 1619, from the Roman goddess of the dawn and the Greek name for the north wind. The southern counterpart, the aurora australis or the southern lights, has features almost identical to the aurora borealis and changes simultaneously with changes in the northern auroral zone. The aurora australis is visible from high southern latitudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia. The aurora borealis is visible from being close to the center of the Arctic Circle such as Alaska, the Canadian Territories, Iceland, Greenland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. On rare occasions the aurora borealis can be seen further south, for example in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Scotland, Ireland, Denmark, and the northern part of the contiguous United States.

A geomagnetic storm causes the auroral ovals (north and south) to expand, bringing the aurora to lower latitudes. The instantaneous distribution of auroras (“auroral oval”) is slightly different, being centered about 3–5° nightward of the magnetic pole, so that auroral arcs reach furthest toward the equator when the magnetic pole in question is in between the observer and the Sun. The aurora can be seen best at this time, which is called magnetic midnight.

Auroras seen within the auroral oval may be directly overhead, but from farther away, they illuminate the poleward horizon as a greenish glow, or sometimes a faint red, as if the Sun were rising from an unusual direction. Auroras also occur poleward of the auroral zone as either diffuse patches or arcs which can be subvisual.

Causes

A full understanding of the physical processes which lead to different types of auroras is still incomplete, but the basic cause involves the interaction of the solar wind with Earth’s magnetosphere. The varying intensity of the solar wind produces effects of different magnitudes but includes one or more of the following physical scenarios.

A quiescent solar wind flowing past Earth’s magnetosphere steadily interacts with it and can both inject solar wind particles directly onto the geomagnetic field lines that are ‘open’, as opposed to being ‘closed’ in the opposite hemisphere, and provide diffusion through the bow shock. It can also cause particles already trapped in the radiation belts to precipitate into the atmosphere. Once particles are lost to the atmosphere from the radiation belts, under quiet conditions, new ones replace them only slowly, and the loss-cone becomes depleted. In the magnetotail, however, particle trajectories seem constantly to reshuffle, probably when the particles cross the very weak magnetic field near the equator. As a result, the flow of electrons in that region is nearly the same in all directions (“isotropic”) and assures a steady supply of leaking electrons. The leakage of electrons does not leave the tail positively charged, because each leaked electron lost to the atmosphere is replaced by a low energy electron drawn upward from the ionosphere. Such replacement of “hot” electrons by “cold” ones is in complete accord with the second law of thermodynamics. The complete process, which also generates an electric ring current around Earth, is uncertain.
Geomagnetic disturbance from an enhanced solar wind causes distortions of the magnetotail (“magnetic substorms”). These ‘substorms’ tend to occur after prolonged spells (on the order of hours) during which the interplanetary magnetic field has had an appreciable southward component. This leads to a higher rate of interconnection between its field lines and those of Earth. As a result, the solar wind moves magnetic flux (tubes of magnetic field lines, ‘locked’ together with their resident plasma) from the day side of Earth to the magnetotail, widening the obstacle it presents to the solar wind flow and constricting the tail on the night-side. Ultimately some tail plasma can separate (“magnetic reconnection“); some blobs (“plasmoids“) are squeezed downstream and are carried away with the solar wind; others are squeezed toward Earth where their motion feeds strong outbursts of auroras, mainly around midnight (“unloading process”). A geomagnetic storm resulting from greater interaction adds many more particles to the plasma trapped around Earth, also producing enhancement of the “ring current”. Occasionally the resulting modification of Earth’s magnetic field can be so strong that it produces auroras visible at middle latitudes, on field lines much closer to the equator than those of the auroral zone.

Moon and aurora
Acceleration of auroral charged particles invariably accompanies a magnetospheric disturbance that causes an aurora. This mechanism, which is believed to predominantly arise from strong electric fields along the magnetic field or wave-particle interactions, raises the velocity of a particle in the direction of the guiding magnetic field. The pitch angle is thereby decreased and increases the chance of it being precipitated into the atmosphere. Both electromagnetic and electrostatic waves, produced at the time of greater geomagnetic disturbances, make a significant contribution to the energizing processes that sustain an aurora. Particle acceleration provides a complex intermediate process for transferring energy from the solar wind indirectly into the atmosphere.

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Nevada’s special place

Ημερομηνία20 Ιανουαρίου 2023

Συντάκτης Β. Τ.

Nevada’s special place

Fly Geyser, also known as Fly Ranch Geyser is a small geothermal geyser located on private land in Washoe County, Nevada, about 20 miles (32 km) north of Gerlach. Fly Geyser is located near the edge of Fly Reservoir in the Hualapai Geothermal Flats and is approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) high by 12 feet (3.7 m) wide, counting the mound on which it sits.

In June 2016, the non-profit Burning Man Project purchased the 3,800 acres (1,500 ha) Fly Ranch, including the geyser, for $6.5 million. The Burning Man Project began offering limited public access to the property in May 2018. The geyser contains thermophilic algae, which flourish in moist, hot environments, resulting in multiple hues of green and red, coloring the rocks.

Location

Fly Geyser is located on the Fly Ranch in Hualapai Flat, about 0.3 miles (0.48 km) from State Route 34 and about 25 miles (40 km) north of Gerlach, Nevada. It is due east of Black Rock Desert.

Origin

The source of the Fly Geyser field’s heat is attributed to a very deep pool of hot rock where tectonic rifting and faulting are common.

The first geyser at the site was formed in 1916 when a well was drilled seeking irrigation water. When geothermal water at close to boiling point was found, the well was abandoned, and a 10–12-foot (3.0–3.7 m) calcium carbonate cone formed.

In 1964, a geothermal energy company drilled a second well near the site of the first well. The water was not hot enough for energy purposes. They reportedly capped the well, but the seal failed. The discharge from the second well released sufficient pressure that the original geyser dried up. Dissolved minerals in the water, including calcium carbonate and silica, accumulated around the new geyser, creating the cones and travertine pools.

The geyser has multiple conic openings sitting on a mound: the cones are about 6 feet (1.8 m), and the entire mound is 25 to 30 feet (7.6 to 9.1 m) tall.

The Fly Geyser is the result of man-made drilling in 1916, when water well drilling accidentally penetrated a geothermal source.

Characteristics

The temperature of the water exiting the geyser can exceed 200 °F (93 °C), which is typical for geysers at high elevation.

Carolina Muñoz Saez, who was hired by the Burning Man owners to study the geyser, reported that the geyser contains “a really high amount of silica.” The silica combined with the temperature has caused quartz to form inside the geyser extraordinarily quickly. Quartz typically takes up to 10,000 years to develop in geysers. Saez said the Fly Geyser is unlike any other geyser she has studied.

Water is constantly released, reaching 5 feet (1.5 m) in the air. The geyser has formed several travertine terraces, creating 30 to 40 pools over an area of 74 acres (30 ha). The water produced by the geyser contains thermophilic algae, which flourish in moist, hot environments, coloring the rocks with brilliant hues of green and red.

The Fly Geyser is located on Fly Ranch, a 3,800-acre parcel of land in Northern Nevada purchased by the Burning Man Project in 2016. It is an amazing site that is located about two hours north of Reno, on the edge of the Nevada Black Rock Desert.

The first geyser on the site began to form in 1916 when residents were seeking irrigation water and drilled a well. This well was quickly abandoned when it was discovered that the water inside was too hot, and so began the development of the first geyser. Similarly, the main geyser was created accidentally in 1964 after a geothermal power company drilled a test well at the site. According to later newspaper reports, the well was either left uncapped or was improperly plugged. In either case, the scalding hot water shot from the well hole and calcium carbonate deposits began to form, growing several inches each year.

Jump forward several decades, and those deposits have become three large mounds that rise out of a field of tall reeds and grasses. The sediments are now almost 6 feet tall and are multi-colored green and red. The geyser’s trio of travertine cones still spew scalding hot water about four or five feet into the air. Scientists who are familiar with the geyser note that the coloring on the outside of the mounds is the result of thermophilic algae, which flourishes in moist, hot environments.

The inside of the mounds even contain quartz, according to Muñoz Saez, and this quartz is growing much more rapidly than any of the other geysers that she has studied in her career. Typically, quartz doesn’t begin to grow for about 10,000 years within geysers, which makes the Fly Geyser even more of a marvel.

outdooradv

Gerlach, Nevada

Photo by wandering.hat, caption reads: I mean, doesn’t everyone have one of these in their backyard? Fly Geyser, at Burning Man’s Fly Ranch northeast of Reno. Find out how to visit this totally awesome site—link in my bio! . . . . #flyranch #flygeyser #burningman #burningman2018 #burners #geysers #coolstuff #travel #blackrockdesert #wanderer #wanderlust #explore #discover #solotravel #sfchronicle #desert

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Maldives unique place

Ημερομηνία20 Ιανουαρίου 2023

Συντάκτης Β. Τ.

Maldives unique place

The Maldives has a reputation for world-class resorts, incredible beaches and landscapes that look even better in person than the photographs. But something even more spectacular, mysterious and romantic takes place on these islands in the Indian Ocean: the glowing and sparkling Sea of Stars.

Experience unparalleled romance

Imagine spending a day relaxing on the Maldives’ pristine beaches and watching the sunset over some of the world’s best landscapes. Then, after a nice meal, return to the soft sands and stroll hand-in-hand along the beach. Gaze into the sky and see countless stars and the faint outline of the Milky Way. Look over at the inky-black Indian Ocean in the mid-distance. Then stare at the bluish glow and sparkling of the water lapping against the shore. This natural phenomenon in the Maldives is known as the Sea of Stars. And to take this romantic experience to the next level, it’s possible to dine al fresco next to it.

What causes the incredible Sea of Stars?

Among the tropical fish, sharks and coral in the Maldives’s Indian Ocean live billions of micro-organisms, including dinoflagellates, which are a type of phytoplankton. But what differentiates the Lingulodinium polyedrum from other organisms is their unique ability to generate light. Stress, caused by the movement of the sea and waves, leads the plankton to emit light, or bioluminescence, as a defence mechanism in a similar way to some fireflies. The bioluminescent light has an electric, blue-neon colour, radiating further as each wave breaks. The speculator phenomena is one of nature’s rarest events. It’s so remarkable, Hollywood decided to feature the Sea of Stars in Ang Lee’s award-winning Life of Pi (2012) to illuminate the sea for the lost protagonist.

When does this rare natural phenomenon occur?

The Sea of Stars in the Maldives depends on several factors, including the year’s climate and the growth of the bioluminescent plankton. Nobody can predict when and where the event will occur. Vaadhoo Island in the Raa Atoll is the most well-known spot. But, it can also be viewed on one of the 1,200 other islands in the Maldives in the right conditions too. According to locals, the spectacular event is more prevalent from late summer to the end of the year. But, these are just personal accounts. The exact time and location are likely to vary for different islands.

It’s definitely a fantasy-like experience but before you roll over in search of that specific beach in Vaadhoo to see the so-called Sea of Stars, better know more about the beautiful little creatures that cause this unbelievable glowing effect.

The Sea of Stars in Vaadhoo, Maldives is just only one of those great sites where you can see this happening but it can happen anywhere. Within the Maldives, you can also visit the islands of Mudhdhoo and Rangali for this spectacular event.

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